class Hello(object):
  def hello(self, name='world'):
    print('Hello, %s.' % name)

>>> from hello import Hello
>>> h = Hello()
>>> h.hello()
Hello, world.
>>> print(type(Hello))
<type 'type'>
>>> print(type(h))
<class 'hello.Hello'>

>>> def fn(self, name='world'): # 先定义函数
...   print('Hello, %s.' % name)
...
>>> Hello = type('Hello', (object,), dict(hello=fn)) # 创建Hello class
>>> h = Hello()
>>> h.hello()
Hello, world.
>>> print(type(Hello))
<type 'type'>
>>> print(type(h))
<class '__main__.Hello'>

# metaclass是创建类，所以必须从`type`类型派生：
class ListMetaclass(type):
  def __new__(cls, name, bases, attrs):
    attrs['add'] = lambda self, value: self.append(value)
    return type.__new__(cls, name, bases, attrs)

 
class MyList(list):
  __metaclass__ = ListMetaclass # 指示使用ListMetaclass来定制类

>>> L = MyList()
>>> L.add(1)
>>> L
[1]

>>> l = list()
>>> l.add(1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'list' object has no attribute 'add'

class User(Model):
  # 定义类的属性到列的映射：
  id = IntegerField('id')
  name = StringField('username')
  email = StringField('email')
  password = StringField('password')

 
# 创建一个实例：
u = User(id=12345, name='Michael', email='test@orm.org', password='my-pwd')
# 保存到数据库：
u.save()

class Field(object):
  def __init__(self, name, column_type):
    self.name = name
    self.column_type = column_type
  def __str__(self):
    return '<%s:%s>' % (self.__class__.__name__, self.name)

class StringField(Field):
  def __init__(self, name):
    super(StringField, self).__init__(name, 'varchar(100)')

class IntegerField(Field):
  def __init__(self, name):
    super(IntegerField, self).__init__(name, 'bigint')

class ModelMetaclass(type):
  def __new__(cls, name, bases, attrs):
    if name=='Model':
      return type.__new__(cls, name, bases, attrs)
    mappings = dict()
    for k, v in attrs.iteritems():
      if isinstance(v, Field):
        print('Found mapping: %s==>%s' % (k, v))
        mappings[k] = v
    for k in mappings.iterkeys():
      attrs.pop(k)
    attrs['__table__'] = name # 假设表名和类名一致
    attrs['__mappings__'] = mappings # 保存属性和列的映射关系
    return type.__new__(cls, name, bases, attrs)

class Model(dict):
  __metaclass__ = ModelMetaclass

  def __init__(self, **kw):
    super(Model, self).__init__(**kw)

  def __getattr__(self, key):
    try:
      return self[key]
    except KeyError:
      raise AttributeError(r"'Model' object has no attribute '%s'" % key)

  def __setattr__(self, key, value):
    self[key] = value

  def save(self):
    fields = []
    params = []
    args = []
    for k, v in self.__mappings__.iteritems():
      fields.append(v.name)
      params.append('?')
      args.append(getattr(self, k, None))
    sql = 'insert into %s (%s) values (%s)' % (self.__table__, ','.join(fields), ','.join(params))
    print('SQL: %s' % sql)
    print('ARGS: %s' % str(args))

u = User(id=12345, name='Michael', email='test@orm.org', password='my-pwd')
u.save()

Found model: User
Found mapping: email ==> <StringField:email>
Found mapping: password ==> <StringField:password>
Found mapping: id ==> <IntegerField:uid>
Found mapping: name ==> <StringField:username>
SQL: insert into User (password,email,username,uid) values (?,?,?,?)
ARGS: ['my-pwd', 'test@orm.org', 'Michael', 12345]

class Student(object):
  name = 'Student'

>>> # 创建实例s：
>>> s = Student()
>>> # 打印name属性，因为实例并没有name属性，所以会继续查找class的name属性：
>>> print(s.name)
Student
>>> # 这和调用Student.name是一样的：
>>> print(Student.name)
Student
>>> # 给实例绑定name属性：
>>> s.name = 'Michael'
>>> # 由于实例属性优先级比类属性高，因此，它会屏蔽掉类的name属性：
>>> print(s.name)
Michael
>>> # 但是类属性并未消失，用Student.name仍然可以访问：
>>> print(Student.name)
Student
>>> # 如果删除实例的name属性：
>>> del s.name
>>> # 再次调用s.name，由于实例的name属性没有找到，类的name属性就显示出来了：
>>> print(s.name)
Student